There are many reasons to plan for non-motorized transportation. Walking, cycling, jogging and skating are increasingly popular for transport and leisure. Safe and convenient non-motorized travel provides many benefits, including reduced traffic congestion, user savings, road and parking facility savings, economic development and a better environment. This section presents a brief overview of the importance of considering non-motorized transport in transport plans.

The ultimate goal of transportation is to provide access to goods, services and activities. In general, the more transportation options available, the better the access. Non-motorized modes are important transport choices, for trips made entirely by walking or cycling, and to support public transport. In urban areas, walking and cycling are often the fastest and most efficient way to perform short trips. A built environment that is hostile to non-motorized transport reduces everybody’s travel choices. The result of this “automobile dependency” is increased traffic congestion, higher road and parking facility costs, increased consumer costs, and greater environmental degradation. Adequate pedestrian and cycling conditions are essential to guarantee everybody a minimal level of mobility (“basic mobility”).

Walking, cycling and skating are enjoyable and healthy activities. They are among the most popular forms of recreation. Public health officials increasingly recognize the importance of frequent aerobic exercise. Non-motorized travel can contribute to the local economy by supporting tourism and quality development. Pedestrian-friendly conditions improve the commercial and cultural vibrancy of communities. Increased pedestrian traffic helps create a safer and more pleasant environment. Once visitors arrive in a community they often explore it by walking, cycling and skating. A good walking environment can enhance visitors’ experience.

Methods commonly used to evaluate roadway projects tend to favor motorized travel and overlook the benefits of improved non-motorized access, so pedestrian and cycling programs tend to be underfunded. As a result, many areas have inadequate sidewalks and crosswalks, roads are not designed or maintained to accommodate cycling, and opportunities for pedestrian and cycling facilities and connections are overlooked. Virtually all communities that have increased non-motorized transport have achieved this by improvements to their walking and cycling environment.

The personal benefits of the non-motorized improvements are: Mobility, particularly important for non-drivers (including children and the elderly); Financial savings; Exercise, leading to increased health and well being (reduced heart disease, stroke, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, colon cancer, osteoporosis, stress, and depression); Increased social interaction, opportunities to meet neighbours; Enjoyment.

Community benefits of substituting short car trips with walking and cycling are: Reduced traffic congestion; Road and parking facility savings; Reduced motor vehicle air, water, and noise pollution; Improved public health; More easy-to-live-in and viable communities; Increased community interaction, which can result in safer streets; Increased appeal and access for tourists; More efficient land use (reduced sprawl), by encouraging infill development.

Pedestrians and cyclists have both similarities and differences that must be considered in planning. The similarities enclose that they both tend to be slower than motor vehicle traffic, are vulnerable to weather, traffic volumes and speeds, pollution, are unlicensed and include wide range of ages and abilities (may include people with special needs). The differences include that bicyclists can travel much faster and farther than pedestrians, ride on roadway and follow vehicle traffic rules, pedestrians are the slowest mode, can change directions quickly and frequently stop, require separated facilities.

3.5.1. Improving bicycle infrastructure
Cyclists vary significantly in abilities, needs and preferences. Both children and less experienced or timid adult cyclists may benefit from facilities with separated right-of-way. Cycle commuters require ample secure parking as well as suitable routes that offer non-circuitous access to employment centers. Bolder commuters and serious sport cyclists often prefer riding in traffic or on highway shoulders. Bicycle planning must balance these varying demands to provide the greatest community benefits with available resources. Cycling improvements can be integrated into roadway planning by having plans and designs reviewed by experts familiar with cyclists needs, by establishing design standards that meet cyclists needs (for example, minimum shoulder widths on highways).

A cycling network should be designed to link destinations and overcome barriers and hazards to cycling in a community. All roads should be considered cycling facilities (except where cycling is specifically prohibited) and should accommodate cycling as well as possible. In addition, special cycling routes should be developed that are particularly suitable to cycling because they have lower vehicle traffic volumes and speeds, fewer hills, or are separated from vehicle traffic altogether. The cycling network should be a network of streets that ensure safe bicycle access to all popular destinations. There are five major categories of bicycle facilities (Litman et al, 2007):

• Bike paths and trails are entirely separated from the roadway except at infrequent intersections. These are generally “multi-use” facilities used by both bicyclists and pedestrians.
• Bike lanes are a portion of the road marked with a line, for use by bicyclists. They are always one-way facilities, with cyclists traveling in the same direction as motor vehicle traffic in the adjacent lane. Bike lanes often become dashed lines approaching an intersection to indicate that cyclists may shift lanes, and motor vehicles may pass through the lanes as needed for turning. Bike lanes are generally found on arterial roads and on major collectors.
• Bike routes are roads particularly suitable for cycling that are marked with signs. This is typically appropriate for streets with low traffic speeds and volumes. This may be an opportunistic classification or may be the result of specific traffic management and traffic calming modifications. Bike routes may direct cyclists away from high speed traffic, high congestion traffic, or difficult intersection situations. “Bicycle Boulevards” are roads that have been modified with traffic management and traffic calming features to be particularly suitable for cycling. Note that a network of bike routes does not eliminate the need to make all roads safe for cycling.
• Other roadway improvements for cyclists include wide, paved shoulders for use in rural areas, level joints and utility covers, safe drain grates, prompt and smooth repairs, smooth railroad track crossings, bicycle sensitive traffic sensors, frequent sweeping and debris cleanup, high traction paint for roadway markings, etc.
• Destination facilities include parking facilities, showers and clothes lockers.

Some people prefer “segregated” facilities, such as bike paths and trails. They consider such facilities to be more pleasant and safer to use. Many people cite the lack of such facilities as a major barrier to increased cycling. Others prefer “integrated” facilities, such as bike lanes, bike routes, and roadway improvements for their more complete access to destinations and because they are generally suitable for faster riding Segregated facilities sometimes have higher crash rates if they create confusion at intersections or have inadequate designs, and because cyclists must share trails with pedestrians, playing children, and leashed or uncontrolled pets. Both bike lanes and wide curb lanes must be properly designed to insure safety.

Paths and trails can often be developed on available rights-of-way along waterways, abandoned railroad lines, open space at new developments, and greenbelts. These can help create a network that satisfies a range of cyclists’ preferences. Sometimes lanes in multi-lane arterials can be redesigned to provide more space for cyclists in the curb lane, by narrowing the inner lanes. This will allow capacity to increase by the amount of cycling added without decreasing the capacity due to slower moving cyclist.

Sidewalks are generally unsuitable to be used as bikeways, because they are generally not designed for cycling speeds; there is generally insufficient width for shared bicycle and pedestrian travel, particularly due to obstacles such as utility poles, signs, and street furniture that narrows the effective width of the sidewalk; bicyclists face conflicts with motor vehicles at driveways and intersections. Motorists are generally not expecting a cyclist to cross their path from the sidewalk, and may not be looking for them; traffic rules, such as obligations to yield, are unclear when cyclists ride on sidewalks, creating confusion and risk between pedestrians, cyclists, and motorists. Sidewalk cycling may be safe for supervised children in less crowded areas riding at walking speeds, but becomes increasingly hazardous as speed is increased and as crossing traffic increases in driveways and intersections.

Bicycle boulevards are designated bicycle routes on urban and suburban streets that use traffic management and traffic calming strategies to control motor vehicle traffic while allowing good mobility for cyclists and pedestrians. For example, a Bicycle Boulevard may be a residential street with barriers every five or six blocks that restrict or severely limit motor vehicle traffic but allow bicycles and pedestrians to easily pass. Motorists still have full access along the street, but cannot use it for through passage. The Bicycle Boulevard has priority at intersections with most cross streets.

Bicycle parking is an important part of a bicycle plan as it provides security for bicycle users at their destinations. Long-term parking is needed at residences, employment centers, schools, and transportation terminals to safely store bicycles for several hours or days at a time. It must be fully protected from the weather, and enclosed in a secure space. This includes lockers, storage rooms, or fenced areas with restricted access. Short-term parking is needed at commercial and recreation centers. It should be as accessible (close to destinations) as possible. At least some short-term bicycle parking should be protected from the weather (a portion can be unprotected, since demand tends to increase during dry weather), and it should be visible to by-passers to discourage theft. Bike racks should support the frame of the bike and provide something to lock the frame and wheels.

Bicycle racks and lockers must be well anchored to the ground to avoid vandalism and theft. They should be located where cycles already parked, or where recommended by bicycle advisory groups. Signs may be needed to indicate bike rack location. The factors that must be considered when locating bike parking facilities are the visibility, the security, the weather protection and adequate clearance.

Bicycle and public transit work well together. Transit is effective for moderate- and long-distance trips along busy corridors, while cycling is effective for shorter-distance trips with multiple stops. Integrating transit and cycling can provide a high level of mobility. The combination of cycling and public transit often replaces trips that could otherwise only be made by automobile. It also allows cyclists to pass major barriers, such as tunnels or freeways where cycling is prohibited, or particularly difficult.

Bike-and-ride facilities can increase the efficiency of public transit services by expanding the catchment area and freeing up vehicle spaces. One step to achieving this objective is to provide bike parking at transit stops and terminals. Another approach is to accommodate bicycles on transit vehicles. This allows a bicycle to be used at both ends of the journey, and provides an option when cyclist cannot ride due to a mechanical failure, changes in weather or other any other reason. Many public transit agencies have installed special racks to carry bicycles on buses, or have policies that allow bicycles to be carried as luggage or within vehicles during off-peak periods.

Case study: Cycle stations and interchange points in Bremen

The development work for the new cycle station at the central railway station in Bremen was carried out during the Target 1 project. The cycle station has now been built and has capacity for 1500 bikes. It offers not just safe storage for bikes but also servicing, cleaning services and bike rental. Another innovative feature is the shoe-shine machine for the office workers. Information on cycling and cycle routes is also readily available, as is information on public transport options. The cycle station provides an integrated approach which facilitates inter-modal travel options. Another cycle station catering for 300 bikes was set up at Bremen-Vegesack. The University of Bremen was a key partner in facilitating this development. They lead discussions and visits to other stations for stakeholders and politicians. This approach was very effective in driving the project forward. Supporting these cycle stations is a ‘cyclist guidance system’ which makes it easier for cyclists to ride to the station on their bikes. A further network of local cycle stations at key interchange locations is planned. The next step is research usage and attitudes of cyclists to the existing cycle stations and to incorporate their comments into the new cycle stations.

At each location, Mobil.punkt also offers an information terminal linking to electronic transport timetable information and tourist information. A survey shows that 30% of car sharers have disposed of their own car and 55% have made a decision not to purchase their own car. This means that street parking space is freed up for other uses such as landscaping and play areas for children. The two test interchange points have been a great success, and as a result an additional two points will be implemented in 2006. Following the Bremen experience, these car sharing points in public places are now discussed by many other city authorities in Germany.

3.5.2. Improving pedestrian infrastructure
Accommodating pedestrians is critical for a quality community. Walking is the most basic form of transportation, and pedestrian conditions affect public transit use, since transit riders usually walk for mobility at their destinations. The pedestrian environment provides public space where people can meet and interact. Creating an attractive and safe pedestrian environment is a critical part of developing more livable communities (Litman et al, 2007).

The pedestrian environment should be safe, accessible to all and easy to use. Good design should enhance the look and feel of the pedestrian environment. It includes open spaces such as plazas, courtyards, and squares, as well as the building facades that give shape to the space of the street. Amenities such as street furniture, banners, art, plantings, and special paving, along with historical elements and cultural references, should promote a sense of place. The pedestrian environment should be a place where public activities are encouraged. Commercial activities such as dining, vending, and advertising may be permitted when they do not interfere with safety and accessibility.

The pedestrian environment should be economical. Pedestrian improvements should be designed to achieve the maximum benefit for their cost, including initial cost and maintenance cost as well as reduced reliance on more expensive modes of transportation. Where possible, improvements in the right-of-way should stimulate, reinforce, and connect with adjacent private improvements.

In addition, the pedestrian network should connect to places people want to go. The pedestrian network should provide continuous direct routes and convenient connections between destinations, including homes, schools, shopping areas, public services, recreational opportunities, and transit.

Pedestrians have special characteristics that must be considered in planning. They are highly diverse, including joggers, healthy adults in a hurry, groups enjoying a leisurely stroll, people carrying packages, people stopped to tie a shoe or enjoy a view, parents with children, people with pets on a leash, the elderly, and people using mobility aids. Facilities should be designed to meet the needs of all users. Pedestrian space requirements range from less than 1 square metre to several square metres for people with a cart, a pet on a leash, or a group. Steps, steep inclines, and surface irregularities can present significant obstacles to children, seniors, people with disabilities, and people using strollers or hand-trucks. The lack of a sidewalk or ramp may mean little to an able-bodied person, who can sidestep the inconvenience, but some pedestrians may need to use an alternative route just to descend a curb.

Pedestrians generally travel more slowly than any other mode. They may be difficult for drivers to see and are vulnerable to injury if hit by a vehicle, particularly when traffic speeds are moderate or high. Pedestrians are particularly sensitive to traffic congestion, detours, roadway conditions and street aesthetics.

Pedestrian facilities include paths, sidewalks, crosswalks, walkways, stairs, ramps, and building entranceways. High quality pedestrian facilities should be incorporated in all urban developments.

Pedestrian planning involves more than just providing and maintaining sidewalks and paths. It also requires consideration of pedestrian needs in roadway design. The pedestrian environment can be enhanced with more human-scale streets with narrower roadway widths, lower traffic speeds, smaller corner radii, planter strips, crosswalks (particularly crosswalks with signals, curb bulges, textured surfaces, raised surfaces, and adequate lighting), street trees, and pedestrian amenities. Traffic calming strategies, described later in this report can also significantly improve the pedestrian environment.

The pedestrian environment can also be enhanced with land use policies that result in more mixed use development (so residences, employment centers and commercial businesses are within walking distance of each other), narrow road widths, a more connected street network (minimal dead-ends and cul-de-sacs), and more human-scale development.

Critical component of the pedestrian environment is the pedestrian underpasses, which must be designed to always provide a clear view from one end of the underpass to the other, and if at all possible avoid any curvature, either horizontal or vertical. Also, the motor vehicles must climb a few degrees on the overpass so that pedestrians and cyclists can pass underneath at grade. Downhill slopes into an underpass should be avoided to keep cyclists from attaining excessive speeds. It is recommended not to build stairs down to underpasses; they discriminate against the non-motorized users and discourage use of the system. There must be providing bright, attractive and secure lighting throughout the underpass at all times.

When planning for large pedestrian crowds, the following recommendations should be taken under consideration:

• Avoid, where possible, two-way pedestrian routes.
• Keep people moving where possible.
• Keep people informed at all times.
• Keep people amused/entertained.
• Provide escape routes and eddy spaces.
• Provide shady and sheltered places.
• Provide diversions for children of all ages.
• Build in sufficient flexibility to cope with varying numbers and unexpected eventualities.
• Raise or lower expectations in order to modify behaviour.

Proponents of non-motorized transportation sometimes propose Car-Free streets or districts. To be successful these require careful planning, and are unsuited to many locations. In pedestrian-oriented retail areas, such as shopping streets and tourist areas, mobility is a key factor in retail success. Much of the attraction of retail malls is their excellent and carefully controlled pedestrian environments. However, improving walking conditions will not necessarily increase business activity at a particular location, particularly if it involves restricting automobile traffic.

“Pedestrianized” commercial districts (“Mainstreets”) can be important for urban revitalization, but must be carefully implemented to be successful (West, 1990; Robertson, 1990; Tyler, 1999; LGC, 2001). They can help create a lively and friendly environment that attracts residents and visitors. Some are closed to motor vehicle traffic, either full time or during some time periods such as evenings or weekends, but most use Traffic Calming design strategies to control traffic speeds and volumes (Boyd, 1998). Below are recommended guidelines for creating a successful pedestrian commercial street or district (Litman, et al, 2000):

• Pedestrian streets are only successful in areas that are attractive and lively. They require a critical mass of users. They should serve as both a destination and a thoroughfare by forming a natural connection route between diverse attractions (housing, shops, offices, etc.).
• Develop a pleasant environment, with greenery, shade and rain covers. Use brick, block pavement or textured cement instead of asphalt, if possible. Street-level building features and street furniture should be pedestrian scale and attractive. Minimize blank building walls.
• Encourage the development of diverse pedestrian-oriented activities that attract a broad range of customers and clients, including retail and commercial services, housing and employment. Apartments and offices can often be located over shops.
• Allow motor vehicles as required for access, with appropriate restrictions based on need, time and vehicle type. This may include unrestricted motor vehicle traffic during morning hours, transit and HOV vehicles, pickup and drop-off for residents and hotels, service and emergency vehicles, or other categories deemed appropriate.
• Pedestrian streets should have good access to public transit and parking. They should be located in pedestrian-friendly areas. Mid-block walkways and buildings open to through public traffic should be developed and enhanced as much as possible.
• Develop a variety of artistic, cultural and recreational amenities (statues, fountains, playgrounds) and activities (concerts, fairs, markets). Highlight historical features.
• Pedestrian streets should generally be small and short, typically just a few blocks in length, although this may increase over time if appropriate.
• Security, cleanliness and physical maintenance standards must be high.
• Vehicle traffic on cross-streets should be slowed or restricted.

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